Community Ecology 

Ecological Interactions 
•	Species interact with one another in four major ways. 

Niches: The Conditions under which Species Persist 
•	A species' niche is the range of environmental conditions under which it can persist. 
•	Interactions among species often restrict the range of a species to only part of its potential distribution. 
Competition: Seeking Scarce Resources 
•	If organisms use the same resources and those resources are in short supply; the individuals are competitors. Competition may be either intraspecific or interspecific. 
•	Competition is easily studied in the laboratory; where competitive exclusion is common in homogeneous environments, but not in heterogeneous ones. 
•	Species that use similar resources commonly coexist in nature because nature is spatially and temporally complex, many resources are typically available, and other factors often keep populations below carrying capacity so that they do not compete strongly.

Predator-Prey Interactions 
•	Predators are classified as herbivores, carnivores, or suspension feeders depending upon what they eat. Herbivores consume large quantities of plant parts, which have low nutritional value. Carnivores eat other animals. Suspension feeders extract large numbers of small prey from water. 
•	Relative sizes of predators and prey influence their interactions. Parasites are typically much smaller than their prey and may live in or on their hosts without killing them. 
•	Because of time lags in the responses of both predators and prey, interactions dominated by one predator and one prey typically oscillate. 
•	Experimental manipulation of predators in nature reveals that they are often important in determining both numbers and distributions of their prey. Predators may prevent prey from living in some environments that are otherwise suit- able for them. 
•	Predators act as evolutionary agents against which prey evolve adaptations, such as toxic hairs and bristles, tough spines, noxious chemicals, and mimicry of inedible objects or dangerous organisms. 

Beneficial Interspecific Interactions 

•	Commensal interactions, in which one partner benefits while the other is unaffected, are common in nature. 
•	Mutualistic interactions, in which both participants benefit, are also common in nature. Mutualistic interactions occur between members of different kingdoms (between plants and prokaryotes, between fungi and algae, and between animals and protists). Animals have mutualistic interactions with other animals and with plants (pollination, seed dispersal). 
Temporal Changes in Communities 
•	Ecological succession involves changes in the species composition of a community over time. Early colonists alter the conditions under which later-arriving species grow. 
•	Succession may begin at sites that have never been modified by organisms. 
•	Succession may take place when all or part of the dead body of some organism is decomposed. 

Coevolution of Interacting Species 
•	Some mutualistic relationships, such as those between figs and fig wasps and yuccas and yucca moths, are tightly coevolved, but diffuse co-evolution between many species is much more common. 
•	
Keystone Species: Major Influences on Community Composition 
•	Keystone species have influences on ecological communities that are greater than would be expected from their abun- dances. 
•	Plants, mammals that change vegetation structure, preda- tors on dominant competitors, and microorganisms may hmction as keystone species. 
•	
Indirect Effects of Interactions among Species 
•	Indirect effects of species interactions affect many species populations. For example, mice prevent gypsy moth populations from recovering quickly after they defoliate oak trees, thereby allowing the trees to recover.